Abstract
The author presents an account
that draws on more than thirty years of activity as an anesthesiologist-resuscitator,
suffused with a thorough knowledge of legal medicine.
He looks over his own hospital
career up to being “sentenced” to become a Department Chief by means of
a succession of various reforms.
He highlights the merits
and drawbacks of these in relation to the existing law norms.
To talk about the responsibility
of a hospital physician is like recalling the story of the Chinese boxes:
to open one of them is to find another one inside, that contains a third
one and so on.
This is because the medic's
responsibilities have been continuously increased over the last fifty years
in an exponential way, to keep pace with the scientific progress that has
raised the average-quality performance threshold.
I remember that, in the
1950s, doctors started off on the principle that “scientia non petit vincula”;
rarely did my colleagues of that time become involved in judicial procedures
to clarify their professional responsibilities, while there was a careful
vigilance regarding rank and category.
Then, after the Fifties,
medical specialties were established and a first distribution of responsibilities
according to abilities and skills.
The rational attribution
of the hospital medic's functions with regard to his/her specialties and
hierarchical rank, independent of the type of hospital, only came about
with D.P.R. 128/69 or the “Mariotti reform”.
Ten years later, with Law
833/78 that decreed the setting up of the National Health Service, the
physician's responsibilities increased again because the labor relationship
became identified with that of a public employee, while the patient has
a contractual relationship with the administration that responds to the
actions of the employee.
The physician in the hospital
only has a responsibility towards the patient of the “neminem laedere”
ex-contractual type.
The direct hospital medic-patient
relationship is reduced whereas the penal responsibilities are multiplied,
above all because they are linked to the public law emphases on service
and performance, especially regarding acts of omission often arising from
structural shortcomings in the hospital environment or from logistical
organization.
The Decrees entitled De
Lorenzo 502/92 and Garavaglia 517/93, with the creation of hospitals run
on business lines and the concentration of power in the person of the General
Manager, bring us up to our own day.
The hospital doctor's position
is further weakened between an expanding political-administrative power
and a patient with increasing demands due to scientific progress, as publicized
daily by the mass media.
It should be remembered that,
following the Mariotti reform, political meddling with health matters was
always on the increase with alternating phases that depended on the color
of the party hegemonies: this has been to the detriment of a homogeneous
spread of scientific breakthroughs, even in organizational terms.
| Tabella
1 - Leggi della responsabilità professionale del medico
......................Cost.
Art. 27
Cod. C. Art. 5
......................Cost
Art. 32
Cod. C. Art. 1173
......................Cod.
P. Art. 43
Cod. C. Art. 1174
......................Cod.
P. Art. 50
Cod. C. Art. 1176
......................Cod.
P. Art. 51
Cod. C. Art. 1346
......................Cod.
P. Art. 54
Cod. C. Artt. 2229-2238
......................Cod.
P. Art. 593
Legge
9 agosto 1954 n. 653
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Indeed, if we want to
consider the political aspect of the various health reforms, we cannot
avoid pointing out that each one of them was preceded by the usual advertising
slogans as used in electoral campaign propaganda to condition public opinion.
In fact, it may be recalled
that Law 833/78 was preceded by the political promise of free healthcare
for all citizens.
Today, this reform has been
put into practice under the banner of the abolition of wastage and, consequently,
of a closer control over the hospital physician's actions.
However, all this has certainly
not been helpful in alleviating the health worker's burden, but it has
led to a more critical and preconceived analysis by public opinion.
To be considered in this
context, are the increasingly numerous judicial initiatives for injury
compensation and the setting up of complaints departments in every hospital
that are managed by bureaucrats having no medical background.
But if this political interference
has helped to increasingly distance the physician from the patient, it
has not lessened the burden of responsibilities he/she has to carry since,
because of Art. 27 of the Constitution, penal responsibility is still personal.
And it is difficult in hospital
practice, particularly in activities that are potentially risky for the
patient, that an injury detected during treatment would not contain some
aspect of penal consequence for the doctor.
A series of conventions has
been held, precisely on hospital physicians' responsibilities, to gather
and compare the opinions of authoritative legal medics, department chiefs
from the disciplines at greatest risk, and Supreme Court jurists. This
was spurred by the noble intent of being able to stem the diaspora that
is increasingly evident between doctrine, practice and legality.
In the field of medicine,
this is leading to operational chaos.
But all this started off
in the 1980s when personal or group concerns began to be placed before
the public interest, neglecting the fact that such behavior would, in time,
deflect and repress those cultural principles that push all citizens to
respect their own rights and to fulfill their duties.
The logo of the naked child
taking shelter from the wild storm under an umbrella well illustrates the
discomfort that the hospital physician feels when, in the face of the demands,
the need for an ideal level of professionalism is not recognized and safeguarded.
While on the other hand,
right from the first reform, a greater control was called for and an institutional
power in support of a completely public health service.
In the Seventies, the writer,
acting in good faith, embraced the mirage of an efficient public health
service deprived of private interests (the launch of the publication “La
Chimera” only occurred in the 1990s). In modern Society the figure of the
hospital physician should be charged with responsibilities no longer in
relation to the patient as the object of treatment but as a “sub specie
iudicis” person.
This conviction was arrived
at following the ever increasing need for thorough and enlightened information
to be imparted from doctor to patient.
It was on this cultural basis
that the first graded list of a physician's responsibilities related to
surgical acts was presented at the National Congress of the Anesthesia
and Resuscitation Society at Aquila, Italy, in 1974 (Table 2).
For many at that time, this
seemed still to be a heresy because, for the first time, degrees of doctors'
responsibilities were being talked about in relation to the risks incurred
by the patient. That is to say, one spoke freely and openly of the risk
of blame being attributed to the physician with reference to operations
performed, prime importance being given to the information and risk evaluation
imparted to the patient.
Tabella
2 - Graduatoria di responsabilità
______________________________________________________
....Tipo
di intervento
Tipo di rapporto
Grado di
..................................................
contrattuale....................responsabilita'
______________________________________________________
| Non
indispensabile |
Obbligazione
di risultato |
1)
Elevato |
|
|
|
Indispensabile
ma
procrastinabile |
Obbligazione di ...mezzi
|
2)
Medio |
|
|
|
Indispensabile
ed
urgente |
Nessuno
perché vige lo
stato
di necessità |
3)
medio |
|
A series of inferences may
be made from this graded list: the first of these is that the medic's responsibilities
would be reduced or canceled the more serious the risk becomes. as found
in operations carried out in dangerous conditions (Art. 54 of the Penal
Code P.C.).
This may seem paradoxical
in that all of us would wish the doctor and the health structure to have
a greater commitment, the greater the seriousness of the illness is.
To similar observations
the answer must be given that the graded list makes reference to responsibility
of the civil law type and related laws (see Table 1), so that the patient
with a less serious condition has greater contractual power and can turn
towards the structures that he/she trusts the most.
On the other hand, the patient
with a life-threatening condition who does not have any contract options
is protected particularly by the penal code, or by the damages derived
from negligence, inexperience, imprudence or non-observance of laws and
regulations (Art. 43 P.C.).
If we therefore consider
that failure is about unestimated damage, being the risk of the possibility
of an injury, (Table 3), we may quantize the damage assigning a value between
0 and 1 (see Table 4).
Tabella
3 - Rapporto tra responsabilità e rischio operatorio
______________________________________________________
Probabilità
dell'insuccesso= p
(Rischio)
r = p x D
Danno
dell'insuccesso = D
(responsabilità)
R = 1- p) x D
_____________________________________________________
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Thus, if the injury probability
is 0, the risk equals the damage, whereas, if the injury probability is
at the maximum limit, the risk is null.
These deductions also satisfy
an important reality because they demonstrate how the anesthesiologist
and the surgeon in general, independent of the specialty type, from the
civil law point of view, have a responsibility only connected to the quality
of the procedure.
This is a concept that is
often difficult to be understood since it is held that the responsibility
is greater in the physician who carries out highly professional duties,
such as the neurosurgeon or cardiosurgeon, whereas, from the civil law
point of view, there is a greater risk of compensation demands hitting
the plastic surgeon or the anesthesiologist, working on operations that
do not involve the vital organs.
But the most interesting
aspect of these theories is that one can subsequently judge the efficiency
and economy of a department.
In fact, if we say that
“p” (the harm probability) has a value of 0.1 of the total damage, the
responsibility will turn on the unestimated damage; if we reckon the total
damage to have an overall value of $1,000, the responsibility will concern
the remaining damage (a value of $900, -see Tables 6,7).
| Tabella
6
Valutazione patrimoniale della R
.........r=
(1 - p) x D
.................................................................Per
esempio:
.................................................................p
= 0,1
.................................................................r
= 1000 $
.................................................................r
= 900 $
.................................................................D
= 1.000 $
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This theory carries great
indicative significance, not only to solicit wider investigations, subject
to consultation of the numerical data held by “ANIA” (the National Association
of Insurance Commissioners), but it could also be useful later on for controlling
the efficiency and economy of an entire department. Indeed, the more the
operation risk estimation is in keeping with the outcome, the more the
efficiency index rises, provided that the result does not make up for excessive
prudence on the part of the physician who evaluates the risk.
These principles of mine,
that were published in the Eighties, partly anticipated the regulations
in force, put into practice with the DRG (Diagnosis Related Groups).In
these years, Decree 833/78 gave the hospital physician a public personality
and any check on clinical actions had to come from the medical institutions
themselves, the labor unions or the professional associations.
But this could not happen
inasmuch as, in those years, the problem was completely neglected because
whoever ran the health service could do no other than to seek to satisfy
the political debt which had procured the management of the establishment
in the first place, which could only be filled by an efficient and complaisant
patron-and-client system.
It was during this time that
the principles and theories that I applied daily did not bring me the recognition
due but, like a heretic, I had to defend my service and professional image
in the relevant jurisdictional places.At least it was demonstrated that
one could reach the summit of one's hospital career, even in those dogged
years, without a political adherence if one was equipped with competence
in medical legalities and was somewhat courageous.
On the wave of the sensational
decision of the State Council that appointed me Chief Physician “by right”
as well as by public competitive examination, I organized the second convention
on “The Professional Responsibilities of the Hospital Physician in the
National Health Service”.
This, through the efforts
of legal medics, jurists and hospital chief physicians, came to emphasize
that such responsibilities have a cost, a function of the doctor's professionalism
on the one hand, and of managerial competence on the other, and that every
action aimed at raising these two important variables would surely lead
to decreased healthcare costs.
The Penal Court of Cassation
(section VI) in the judgment of 12.12.1985 defined the professionality
of the physician as “the sum of the knowledge and experiences that the
physician might possess”.
This affirmation underlines
the importance of competence and of keeping up to date, for the benefit
of having more rational choices of procedures to carry out, for being able
to refer patients to the most appropriate structures, and for a rational
distribution of the regional operational units in relation to the needs
of the users.
But, to enlarge that protective
umbrella over the hospital physician's professional responsibilities, the
administrative aspect could not be ignored, which is becoming increasingly
bureaucratized, as if the medic deserved constant checking.
In the third convention
of 9.23.1995, whose proceedings are published in “New Magazine”, the recent
health regulations were discussed (the De Lorenzo decree D.L. 502/92 and
the Garavaglia decree D.L. 517/93).
In these laws there is a
will to centralize power in the hands of the general manager, neglecting
to point out the correlations that there are between power, responsibility
and competence. In order to obviate such an excessive concentration of
power, not always backed up by a corresponding broad ability, one is referred
to one of its subsections.
This trend carries the inconvenience
of endlessly bureaucratizing the hospital service, with increases in the
cost-benefit ratio and harm being rendered to the physician's activities
when he/she is already hard-pressed by the rightful demands of the patients.
We have thus reached (Figg.9,10)
a trilogy made up of three valencies: a first political-administrative
type that wants to have the major power base in relation to a pseudo-private
aspect of the public health service; a second “health service physician”
type with greater personal responsibility; and a third “objective” type
that is exposed to the injury risk.
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